'Ismaël pria Osman de luy donner quelques Chrestiens': Gift Exchanges and Economic Reciprocity in trans-Saharan Diplomacy (Sixteenth{\textendash}Seventeenth Centuries)

Abstract The practice of gift-giving was omnipresent in trans-Saharan embassies. Gifts were the material expression of the political dialogue between rulers. Their quality and quantity was a good barometer of relations between rulers. A close analysis of the gifts sent or received by the Borno rulers (present-day Nigeria) between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries reveals a system of norms and customs on the part of the Borno chancellery. Their material value also raises the question of their economic dimension and how they were recycled. By focusing on the embassies between Tripoli and Borno in the early modern period, the aim of this article is to demonstrate that the gifts were a part of a normalized practice of diplomacy. Beyond the message carried by the gifts themselves, the Borno sultans mixed economic and political interests by integrating the exchanges of gifts into the wider trans-Saharan trade.