“The Eyes and the Ears of the King.” Spying and Intelligence in the Correspondence of the Ancient Near East in the II Millennium B.C.E.

This dissertation studies the intelligence and espionage practices of the second-millennium B.C.E. Ancient Near East, primarily focusing on epistolary records but also considering other relevant genres. Chapter One examines Akkadian and Hittite terminology related to intelligence, proposing new translations and confirming existing ones. Additionally, the roles of various agents, such as informers and spies, are explored. Chapter Two explores intelligence and espionage in political and diplomatic contexts. It discusses how ambassadors provided valuable intelligence, the use of secret audiences, and strategies for controlling information flow. Poisoning, false identification, and the role of written communication in ensuring trustworthiness of messengers are also examined. The chapter further analyzes intelligence gathered from royal women, administrators, and ministers, as well as operations aimed at maintaining internal order and manipulating public opinion. In Chapter Three, field intelligence and espionage in military and operational contexts are investigated. The roles of spies, informers, and moles are explored, along with other strategies for obtaining information on the enemy. The chapter also discusses unsolicited intelligence sources such as fugitives, defectors, deserters, and merchants, as well as the pivotal role of patrolling and counterintelligence measures. Psychological warfare tactics, counterintelligence operations, and divination practices aimed at avoiding intelligence failures are also examined. Comparisons are drawn between the intelligence systems of the Neo-Assyrian empire and those of the second-millennium Ancient Near East. While some terminology and practices differ, similarities in the roles of intelligence agents and the methods of gathering and processing information are noted. The dissertation suggests that many Neo-Assyrian innovations were already present in the second millennium B.C.E. and emphasizes the systematic nature of intelligence gathering during this period. Overall, the study provides a comprehensive analysis of intelligence and espionage practices in the Ancient Near East, shedding light on the sophisticated systems developed by ancient civilizations for gathering, analyzing, and utilizing intelligence information.