A reassessment of contemporary and ancient Southeast Asian lashed lug watercraft: new evidence and perspectives

This thesis provides a detailed study of the Southeast Asian lashed lug ship- and boatbuilding tradition, focusing mainly on sites in Indonesia. This watercraft construction tradition dates back at least to the 5th century BCE and was widely practised until the 16th century CE. With Indonesia accounting for more than half of the nearly forty known lashed lug sites, this research aims to deepen existing knowledge of this enduring construction technology by examining recent and understudied sites to reassess prevailing definitions and typologies. The study highlights a complex diversity across different periods and regions within the lashed lug construction. The methodology adopts a multidisciplinary approach that combines archaeological evidence with iconography and ethnography. Archaeological data include detailed records of both new and overlooked remains from Sumatra and nearby islands, ranging from intact shipwrecks to disarticulated timbers. The study also expands sources of iconography, encompassing images and depictions of Indonesian watercraft across different periods, locations, and media. Ethnographic fieldwork involved participatory observation in shipyards that maintain shell-first construction techniques, particularly in Lamalera (East Nusa Tenggara), where lashed lug construction is still practised, as well as in Tana Beru (South Sulawesi) and Pasuruan (East Java). This study confirms the main features of the lashed lug construction, including the use of a keel plank, edge-joined strakes, a wing end for both the bow and stern, and the internal lugs for frame lashings. However, the key findings of this thesis highlight the variations and changes within the lashed lug construction. Variations are identified in numerous lug designs and fastening systems, while changes are observed in the overall shape of the lugs and the creation of the lashing holes. Furthermore, examination of the intact Lagoi shipwreck reveals the presence of nailed frames and long tenons passing through the lugs, which challenges the traditional view that these used solely organic materials. For information missing in the archaeological record, iconography and ethnography strongly suggest the use of the canted rectangular sail (tanja sail). Steering was generally achieved with twin quarter rudders, as evidenced by the rudder mounting beams findings, or with steering oars on smaller boats. The bipod mast, depicted in both Borobudur reliefs and the Muarajambi engraving, remains in Lamalera's peledang, where it is not fixed and can be easily dismantled. This might explain why mast steps are absent from archaeological finds. Overall, this detailed documentation of construction features offers a valuable dataset for future analyses—both historical and comparative—of this enduring shipbuilding tradition.